Although, decision-making in sports remains of particular interest due to the manifestation of the cognitive activity in the instantaneous actions during the game, as it is the case for soccer.
Studies in this area have focused on the mental processes that allow a player to momentarily generate a relevant action in a given game situation, for instance, to progress towards the opponent's goal or to maintain the possession of the ball.
This decision refers to a tactical action and requires a player to appeal to cognition at each moment of the game to process the perceived information and generate a decision to execute. Thus, actual investigation in this area seeks to determine what process allows experts to make quality decisions.
In the present study, we focused on the mental processes that referred to cognitive mechanisms. Four of them have been identified in performing athletes: monitoring describe the situation , evaluation assess , prediction anticipate and planning prepare 3 3 Ward P, Williams AM, Ericsson KA. Underlying mechanisms of perceptual-cognitive expertise in soccer.
Human Kinetics; Although, limited literature offers systematic investigation of the mechanisms leading to quality decision-making in team sports. In general, such investigations are pursued in laboratories. Verbal reports are used as data to identify the cognitive processes used to make a decision 4 4 Ericsson KA, Simon HA, editors.
Protocol analysis; Verbal reports as data revised edition. Tactics, the neglected attribute of expertise: Problem representations and performance skills in tennis. In: Expert performance in sports: Advances in research on sport expertise. The mechanisms underpinning decision-making in youth soccer players: an analysis of verbal reports.
In: International Research in Science and Soccer. Although, further studies must be realized to identify which mechanism favours quality tactical decisions. One avenue consists in analyzing how tactical decisions are verbalized because the words reflect the mechanisms used to process information 7 7 Ward P.
The development of perceptual-cognitive expertise. Tese - John Moores University; On another hand, studies also show that players gain experience and knowledge through training and competition 8 8 Thomas KT, Thomas JR. Developing expertise in sport: The relation of knowledge and performance. Int J Sport Psychol. Practice and play in the development of sport expertise. In: Handbook of sport psychology.
Revista Digital Buenos Aires. Expertise and perceptual-cognitive performance in soccer: a review. Rev Port Cien Desp. Nevertheless, there's a clear interest in assessing youth players in their progression to elite level.
This includes understanding how their mental processes evolve as they are going through their development phase. Previous studies of maturation show obvious transformation in players' adolescence, counting with remarkable cognitive evolution as long as these capabilities are solicited and trained 12 12 Tenenbaum G, Stewart E, Sheath P. Detection of targets and attentional flexibility: Can computerized simulation account for developmental and skill-level differences? Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition.
J Child Psychol Psychiatry. Hence, it is suggested that mental processes should evolve through maturation. In that case, scientific methods can be used to identify how players process information, and trace their cognitive progress over time. Given the previous arguments, the aim of this research is to identify the mechanisms that lead players to make quality tactical decisions, and how these mechanisms evolve over time.
We hypothesize that the mechanisms are likely to influence the quality of tactical decisions as the players undergo formal training during their development phase. Plus, mechanisms should change through age levels considering the biologic maturation process during adolescence. This research is expected to offer more understanding of the progression of mental processes during the formative years.
The sample was composed of 90 male soccer players of the training teams of a Soccer Club affiliated to the Soccer Federation of the State of Rio de Janeiro, in Brazil, and to the Brazilian Soccer Confederation.
These participants were divided in five groups with 18 players in each of the age levels presented in the Table 1. All participants did provide the amount of years they have been practicing soccer, as they fulfilled the questionnaire of characterization.
A rounded estimation was calculated in respect with the amount of years and an average of 32 hours per month, suggested by the club, in order to compile the total of hours of general practice of soccer. Also, the archives of the club were consulted to retrieve the date of arrival of each participant. The same estimated training time was calculated according to the date of arrival in order to compile the hours of formal practice in the club.
The directors of the club signed a document authorizing the realization of the data collection, the usage of the club's infrastructures and the participation of the player to the research activities. The legal tutors of each players signed an informed assent form before the realization of the tests, allowing the participation of the players to the study and the usage of the data for research purposes.
A tactical test was used in this study to estimate players' game knowledge. Porto, Universidade de Porto. Multivariate profiles of selected versus non-selected elite youth Brazilian soccer players. J Hum Kinet. Declarative and procedural tactical knowledge in soccer players of different ages. The visioning was realized in quiet conditions with controlled light, using a projector to display the video sequences on the wall.
The scenarios was presented to each participant, where an image was frozen for two seconds before the player decided "what to do". He was given the time he needed to give his answer and justify his decision. A point was given if the solution matched the best option unanimously determined by four experts during the test construction. Two experts validated the participants' answers to ensure they matched the original code.
The participants were able to familiarize with the procedure before the test began as they were given two practice trials. Figure 1 An example of frozen image of a video sequence Adapted from Mangas et al. The answers of the test previously mentioned were recorded and analyzed according to the adaptation of the Protocol of Verbal Report 4 4 Ericsson KA, Simon HA, editors. Identifying the processes underpinning anticipation and decision-making in a dynamic time-constrained task.
Cogn Process. There are four main categories of statements: a monitoring statements, described as the recalls to current actions or descriptions of current events; b evaluations, described as some form of comparison, assessment, or appraisal of events that are situation-, task-, or context-relevant; c predictions, described as anticipation or highlights of future or potential future events; and d planning statements, described as the decision s on a course of action in order to anticipate an outcome or potential outcome of an event.
During the analysis of the verbatim, each scene was ascribed the dominant statement type amongst the ones listed above. The frequency of each dominant statement type was compiled. The frequencies of correct answers were calculated per statement type per age level, which allowed to observe how many correct tactical decisions were associated with each statement type.
Also, in order to comprehend the strength of the influence of each statement type on the amount of correct answers in all age levels, the Standard Residuals e were calculated using the following formula 18 18 Cook RD, Weisberg S. Residuals and influence in regression. Hence, situational variables like the quality of opposition have been regarded as an important influence factor on collective and individual performance 10 J Hum Kinet.
International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport. Modelling relationships between match events and match outcome in elite football. European journal of sport science. Moreover, Taylor, Mellalieu, James, Sheraer 10 Given the aforementioned, the objectives of this study are twofold: firstly, to apply the Golden Index GI formula 23 The Golden Index: A classification system for player performance in football attacking plays.
P, All opponent teams were grouped into three levels 13 Technical performance and match-to-match variation in elite football teams. J Sports Sci. All Golden Index formula variables were observed for each ATM player, with the exception of the Goalkeepers, due to their reduced participation in the attacking plays, in particular in regards of the variables related to goal scoring, as well as their restricted positioning on the field 9 9.
All conducted procedures followed a logic defined by the Golden Index formula 23 The sum of all matrices resulted in a global adjacency matrix representing the total interactions performed by players during the games. After that, the total number of passes performed and received, displayed in the adjacency matrices, were divided by the individual time played for each player , multiplied by The following steps were performed for each player in each of the twelve variables and for the three level of opponents.
Excel was used for statistical treatment. Koke wide midfielder was considered the Golden Player since he obtained the highest values of the team in the passes received PRec: 0, and passes performed PPer: 0, variables. In addition, he obtained high values in the variables page rank prestige PR: 0, , betweenness centrality BC: Ranked in the second position performed Yannick Carrasco winger , with the highest value of the team in the variable running with the ball RB: 0, This player also obtained high values in shots Shots: 0, , assists A: 0, and successful dribbles 1x1 DB: 0, variables.
Antoine Griezmann, playing as second striker, obtained the highest index of the team in goals Goal: 0, and running with the ball RB: 0, variables. Moreover, he obtained high index in variables shots Shots: 0, , assists A: 0, and page rank prestige PR: 0. Particularly, Carrasco obtained the highest index of the team in the variables shots Shots: 0, , successful dribbles 1x1 DB: 0, and page rank prestige PR: 0. Antoine Griezmann second striker presented the highest values of the team in the following variables: page rank prestige PR: 0.
This player also achieved high values in successful dribbles DB: 0, , assists A: 0, and shots 0, variables. Koke showed a performance that ranked him as the second place Golden Player, displaying the highest values of the team in the variables passes received PRec: 0, , passes performed PPer: 0, , betweenness centrality BC: A systemic overwiew of football game: The principles behind the game.
Results from our data indicated that players who played, preferably, through the lateral paths of the field were nominated Golden Players of ATM when competing against high-level opponents. Grund 27 Grund TU. Network structure and team performance: The case of English Premier League soccer teams. Social Networks. Zhu 28 Zhu Y. Thesis [Master Degree in Science in Engineering].
Such evidences confirm that Koke possibly has played a fundamental role in the orchestration and organization of ATM attacking patterns of play, acting as an intermediary in connecting more often other pairs of players, due to his levels of betweenness centrality 29 Barghi A.
Analyzing Dynamic Football Passing Network. Thesis [Master Degree in Computor Science]. A network theory analysis of football strategies. Additionally, Koke was considered the second player with more assists and positive crosses per time played.
These behaviors have similarities to ball-passing metrics, but occur in more attacking zones of the field.
This suggests that Koke played an important role in the pre-finalization and creation sub-phases of play 31 Quina J. Yannick Carrasco winger was considered the second Golden Player of ATM against high-level opponents, which is proved by his high values in the variables of successful dribbles 1x1 , running with the ball and shots. The works of Wiemeyer 32 Wiemeyer J. Who should play in which position in soccer? Empirical evidence and unconventional modelling.
Int J Perform Anal Sport. Cullinane A. Techical comparison of positional roles in professional football. Dissertation [ Sport and Physical Education]. University of Wales Institute Cardiff; corroborate such results, since authors suggested that wingers should present good dribbling skills, with freedom to perform individual actions and duels in advanced zones of the pitch.
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Objective C. How to start with a specific quality? Player element , playerConfig ; player.
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